Showing posts with label ecology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label ecology. Show all posts

November 06, 2008

Fuel-Making Fungus: Put Some Gliocladium in Your Tank

A fungus discovered in southern South America is capable of turning cellulose into diesel fuel, much like that used to power vehicles the world over. The endophyte (a fungus that lives inside of plant tissues), dubbed Gliocladium roseum, breaks down the cellulose and releases a vapor rich in octane, alcohols and esters in a mixture that burns with greater efficiency than diesel fuels currently on the market, resulting in what could become a lower-cost, cleaner-burning, renewable fuel source. While the fungus has so far been found only in a single tree species, New Scientist reports that

...the fungus can grow on cellulose, which contains huge amounts of hydrocarbon but is notoriously difficult to break down.

"It's the most abundant organic compound produced on earth, but most of it goes to waste," says [discoverer Gary] Strobel. By fermenting the fungus on cellulose, it should be possible to generate huge quantities of the diesel vapour "ready-for-use".
In other words, it might be possible to culture G. roseum in industrial-sized vats of medium made from waste paper products and covert that waste into relatively cheap energy while reducing carbon emissions. More research needs to be done to determine how economically this can be done.

All in all, this is yet another story for the "fungi... is there anything they can't do?" file. It's also another powerful argument about the importance of preserving natural resources and native ecology around the world. New species with applications that can improve our lives in numerous ways are frequently discovered. For every species lost that we know about, how many do we lose before we've ever found out about them in the first place? Gliocladium roseum could just as easily been among that latter category.

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September 14, 2008

Busy with Beetles: Collections and Hypotheses

I haven't had much free time since returning from Florida, hence the lack of updates here. My schedule this semester is rather packed. For instance, on Thursdays I have two hours of open time between 10 AM and 9 PM which I will be using to eat. It will all work out, but it will also take a couple of weeks for me to get settled into this new calendar. As it stands right now, though, I haven't even had the chance to edit my photos from the trip.

I have, however, finished identifying the beetle specimens to the extent I've been able without molecular work. It's not a bad collection for under a week's time, and a couple of the species are of particular interest for reasons I'll mention below.

Megalodacne heros is without doubt the most visually spectacular of the bunch. It's one of the largest (if not the largest) of the Erotylidae and quite a colorful insect. I collected four specimens from the pore surface of Ganoderma applanatum, which is not nearly so common in Florida as it is in cooler climates. In Florida, it seems to be replaced by species in the Ganoderma lucidum complex. I didn't find M. heros on any other fungi, including the numerous G. applanatum specimens I saw in the field. That might be chance, of course.

A teneb mimic of M. heros, Platydema ellipticus, was also collected from the pore surface of Phellinus gilvus. While this beetle is substantially smaller than Megalodacne, it has what I suspect is aposematic coloration. That is to say, natural selection has favored individuals with markings similar to the larger and more toxic erotylid in this particular teneb. Five specimens of this insect came back with me.

Platydema nigratum is a close relative of the above. It doesn't have much going for it in terms of coloration, but this is an exciting find for me for two reasons. First, the habitat of this beetle is uncertain. I can say definitively that I collected it from between fruiting bodies of Stereum ostrea, and I watched one specimen chewing on that fungus. I have no doubt at all that it is a fungivore and macrophagous at that. Second, the larva of this species isn't described in the literature. I recovered a specimen of what I believe will turn out to be a larval P. nigratum from within the fleshy base of a relatively large S. ostrea sporophore. Once I've sequenced both adult and larva I should be able to connect the two definitively.

I collected numerous specimens of Neomida bicornis from two fungi. I first found them inside the same G. applanatum sporophores that had Megalodacne on their surface. I found specimens again several days later living in the context of Trametes elegans, a particularly fleshy member of the same genus that contains the ubiquitous turkey tail, T. versicolor. An interesting thing happened when I collected N. bicornis from that fungus that I wish I had noticed in the field. When I first started collecting, I found six specimens and put them in a microtube. Then I noticed additional galleries and collected fourteen more specimens in a second tube. When I brought them all back to the lab, it turned out that all six specimens in the first tube were male and all fourteen in the second were female. The probability of this happening purely by chance is so small that it suggests to me that males and females were segregated for some reason at the moment that I found the insects. I know nothing about the behavior of N. bicornis; I doubt that anyone has really investigated it. Also, it's worth noting that the specimens from Florida are very, very different from what's called N. bicornis in New England, which I've collected from Pycnoporus cinnibarinus at Wachusett. The Floridian specimens have an orange prothorax and males have straight horns. The New England version is dark metallic green and the male's horns are slightly curved. There's a chance, I think, that the two are really two different species and, indeed, I don't find any sequences for Neomida in EntrezGene other than one for a basidiomycete yeast from its gut discovered by Suh and Blackwell. I'm looking forward to pulling sequences from the northern and southern "morphs." If they do turn out to be two different species, I think I get to name one of them. The two insects look so different that I find it hard to believe they could be the same species.

I also found a second Neomida, N. ferruginea, in the context of a second G. applanatum sporophore. I only recovered one specimen of this rather drab little teneb, though. When I eventually do the phylogeny from the genus, I suspect that this beetle will be more closely related to the southern "morph" of N. bicornis than it is to the one from New England. That's just a hunch, of course.

Of course, no teneb hunting expedition would be complete without the recovery of a couple of specimens of Bolitotherus cornutus. I collected specimens of the widely-distributed beetle from both G. applanatum (the same cluster of fruiting bodies above) and G. lucidum on this trip. B. cornutus seems to be the most successful of the larger fungus-dependent tenebs of North America based on my experience. I can hardly help but find the insects whenever I search polypores. The genus, and in fact the whole tribe, is quite small as compared to other teneb tribes, but Bolitotherus seems to be the champ in sheer numbers. Having some specimens from Florida will give me the chance to eventually compare sequences from specimens from three states. Perhaps I'll someday investigate population genetic structure in this insect, which doesn't get around much but seems to be everywhere.

I also have a couple of specimens that I haven't been able to identify beyond family yet, including a few of what are probably Nitidulidae but are potentially Leiodidae, too. I'm hoping for the former, though. Nitidulidae seems to be a family with taxa in transition between feeding on the sap from tree wounds and living on the polypores that grow from those wounds. Most beetle families have hind feet with five segments (tarsomeres). Tenebrionidae, which I've hypothesized to be primitively macrofungivorous, have only four. Nitidulidae still have five, but many species in the family have a markedly decreased fourth tarsomere, so one can imagine a scenario in which the transition from living on the surface of a fungus and eating the hymenium (Erotylidae) leaves the beetles with five tarsomeres, there's a transitional state in which the fourth (or other) tarsomere is reduced as the beetles begin to tunnel into the fungi (Nitidulidae) and, ultimately, the tarsomere is lost entirely over time as a fully fungus-exploiting lifestyle is adopted (Tenebrionidae).

One of the fungi I collected also turned out to be an unusual specimen. A glossy, brown, trametes-like, sessile thing with subdaedaloid pores turned out to be the tropical Nigroporus vinosus. Nobody in my lab has seen it before. One of the ongoing projects in the lab is the exploration of wood-decaying fungi (N. vinosus is a white-rotter) for use in bioremediation. It may be worthwhile to mount another trip to look for unusual species to be cultured in this regard, too. We'll see about that. I'm planning on going back again at some point, anyhow, and perhaps swinging around the Gulf Coast a bit in the future to sample both polypores and beetles from more climes. I've barely scratched the surface here, after all.

Clearly, I've got a ton of work to do, and I haven't even really started yet... hence my absence from the blogosphere of late. Rest assured, though, that situation is only temporary. I have no intention of disappearing just yet!

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September 09, 2008

A Brief Summary of the Florida Expedition

Today is the last day that I will be here in Florida. The field work has been productive for both myself and my colleague. Each day has begun with our getting up no later than 6 AM, eating breakfast and getting out to the field before 8 AM in hopes of escaping the heat for a little while. That last part hasn't really worked, of course, because this is North Florida in early September we're talking about. A bank sign that gave the temperature in Tallahassee read 100° by the time we came in from the field yesterday.

I've collected numerous specimens of Tenebrionidae, Tetratomidae and Erotylidae. Already winging their way back to Massachusetts are such critters as Platydema ellipticus, Megalodacne heros, Neomida bicornis (the Florida morph, which has an orange prothorax — and which I suspect isn't actually the same species as the Northeastern N. bicornis), and Penthe obliquata. All in all, I've collected at least seven species for which I previously had no specimens and possibly more. I'll be able to better sort this out once I've gotten back to the lab in Worcester. I suspect the final total will be closer to ten. The specimens should be getting back there on Wednesday, and I'll be getting back on Thursday.

As for today, we're going to take care of some housekeeping. My field companion needs to get some water from within a pitcher plant back to her lab in order to culture the yeasts therein. Then we're going to do laundry; sweaty clothes accumulate quickly in this part of the world. After that, we'll play tourist for a bit and see the Florida Caverns in Marianna.

Don't get the impression that this trip has been all work. We've had time in the evenings to hang around with our gracious hosts, toss back a few beers and consume more than our fair share of oysters. It's been quite nice to see a few friends here in Tallahassee for the first time in over a year and also quite remarkable how well my mycological compatriot has fit in with them. She's generally an agreeable sort, of course, as long as one doesn't get between her and her oysters. The woman is a whirlwind of cocktail sauce and spent shells when the things are set before her; one could easily lose an intrusive hand!

I've been studiously avoiding mention of all things non-biological this week and no doubt have a ton of catching up to do on the latest in religious lunacies and electoral nincompooperies, and I could try to write a more detailed entry about this trip. I may still do that over the next few days as time permits. There will soon be photos as well. For now, though, I have to admit that as much as I've enjoyed the company of fellow science geeks and friends here in Florida, I'm feeling just a little bit lazy today. I'll neither be catching up with news nor editing photos today.

I'm also ready to get back home to LL. She's one of the very few things in this world I find even more interesting than a beetle-infested polyporoid fungus, truth be told. Yes, that's actually a compliment, and she's probably the only woman who knows me well enough to understand just how big of one it is.

For now, I'm going to step outside and get my first few breaths of the muggy morning air.

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August 29, 2008

Moreland Woods Survey

The date has at last been set for local biologists and naturalists to begin the surveying of Moreland Woods in an effort to catalog species on behalf of the Greater Worcester Land Trust. Everyone involved in the effort can't make it there the same day, so &e and I will be taking a look at fungi and Coleoptera on Tuesday in the company of perhaps one or two other investigators. Others will be at the site on Wednesday and Thursday while I'm in Florida.

The site is in the northern part of the city (map), bounded by Moreland Street to the north and west and by Old Brook Drive to the east. I have only a vague notion of what might be in there and whether any of it will justify use of a grant to protect the place, but we'll find out soon.

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August 26, 2008

Gel of the Day: What the Heck Happened Here?

Sometimes, a perfectly good gel gets funkified in the process of handling. I think that's what happened with this gel, which was otherwise indicative of a near-perfect PCR:
OuchyThe specimens in this case were three adult and one larval Bolitotherus cornutus which I collected at the MSA foray in Pennsylvania on August 10. The last eight lanes, 25-32, are from the larva. I haven't successfully sequenced a larva before; maybe my dissection technique is improving. The cox1 bands (31) look a bit weak, but the product should do for sequencing.

If you're familiar with electrophoresis gels or have at least been peeking at previous gels of the day, you're probably asking about now, "Mike, what the heck happened to lanes 21, 22 and 27?"

Well, I'll tell you. In order to take this photo using a UV light, I have to remove the gel from the casting tray, put it in a weigh boat and take it to a dark room upstairs from my lab. In the process of transferring the gel from tray to boat to camera, it gets a little scrape over an edge or two. This time, for whatever reason, that caused the bands in three lanes to get smeared. Nonetheless, there are bands there and since they are duplicates from two different dilutions (as far as specimen and gene go, 21=17, 22=18 and 27=31), it's not a problem.

Also, every fourth well is a control; there shouldn't be anything there. There seems to be a very faint band in lane 4, but it's nothing to worry about. I may just try and sequence it to see what the contamination is, since the position of that band is unlike that of any of the legitimate bands on this gel. I suspect that the culprit is a dirty microtube; if my primers, buffers, etc. had been contaminated, I would expect to see that phantom band in all of the control lanes.

The reason I'm running another batch of B. cornutus is that these are the first specimens I've collected from a site outside of Massachusetts. It's worth looking at them just to see if there are any polymorphisms present in introns in the sequences I'm analyzing.

I also read a very interesting paper today:

Leschen RAB and TR Buckley. 2007. Multistate characters and diet shifts: evolution of Erotylidae (Coleoptera). Systematic Biology 56(1):97-112. DOI: 10.1080/10635150701211844.
It's very much relevant to my own research. In this paper, Leschen and Buckley analyze the evolution of Erotylidae, a family of beetles only distantly related to the family I'm studying, and link their hyperdiversity to a shift to a diet of macrofungi. It sounds rather familiar, no? It's a very interesting read if you're into this sort of thing. It's based on morphology, not molecular biology, and finds a good link between diet and the external reproductive structure (gonocoxa and ovipositor) of Coleopteran females. Mycologists (at least those with an interest in basidiomycetes) and coleopterists alike will undoubtedly find something of interest in the paper. Enjoy.

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August 25, 2008

Teaching Biology in Florida: David Campbell Struggles Against Fundamentalism

An excellent article appeared in yesterday's New York Times about David Campbell, a high school biology teacher in Orange Park, Florida and a founder of Florida Citizens for Science. I've had my own experience with attitudes toward evolutionary biology, and science in general, while a resident of North Florida for five years, but nothing as intimate and constant as what Campbell faces on a daily basis.

A Teacher on the Front Line as Faith and Science Clash
By AMY HARMON


...in a nation where evangelical Protestantism and other religious traditions stress a literal reading of the biblical description of God's individually creating each species, students often arrive at school fearing that evolution, and perhaps science itself, is hostile to their faith.

Some come armed with "Ten questions to ask your biology teacher about evolution," a document circulated on the Internet that highlights supposed weaknesses in evolutionary theory. Others scrawl their opposition on homework assignments. Many just tune out...

"Evolution has been the focus of a lot of debate in our state this year," he said. "If you read the newspapers, everyone is arguing, 'is it a theory, is it not a theory?' The answer is, we can observe it. We can see it happen, just like you can see it in Mickey."

...Bryce [Haas], heavyset with blond curls, left with a stage whisper as he slung his knapsack over his shoulder.

"I can see something else, too," he said. "I can see that there's no way I came from an ape..."

Bryce Haas and Jackson TweedyMr. Campbell, 52, who majored in biology while putting himself through Cornell University on a Reserve Officers Training Corps scholarship, taught evolution anyway. But like nearly a third of biology teachers across the country, and more in his politically conservative district, he regularly heard from parents voicing complaints.

With no school policy to back him up, he spent less time on the subject than he would have liked. And he bit back his irritation at Teresa Yancey, a biology teacher down the hall who taught a unit she called "Evolution or NOT."

Animals do adapt to their environments, Ms. Yancey tells her students, but evolution alone can hardly account for the appearance of wholly different life forms. She leaves it up to them to draw their own conclusions. But when pressed, she tells them, "I think God did it..."

"Science explores nature by testing and gathering data," he [Campbell] said. "It can't tell you what's right and wrong. It doesn't address ethics. But it is not anti-religion. Science and religion just ask different questions."

He grabbed the ball and held it still.

"Can anybody think of a question science can't answer?"

"Is there a God?" shot back a boy near the window.

"Good," said Mr. Campbell, an Anglican who attends church most Sundays. "Can't test it. Can't prove it, can't disprove it. It's not a question for science."

Bryce raised his hand.

"But there is scientific proof that there is a God," he said. "Over in Turkey there's a piece of wood from Noah's ark that came out of a glacier..."

Bryce came to Ridgeview as a freshman from a Christian private school where he attended junior high...

"I think a big reason evolutionists believe what they believe is they don't want to have to be ruled by God," said Josh Rou, 17.

"Evolution is telling you that you're like an animal," Bryce agreed. "That's why people stand strong with Christianity, because it teaches people to lead a good life and not do wrong."

Doug Daugherty, 17, allowed that he liked science.

"I'll watch the Discovery Channel and say 'Ooh, that's interesting,' " he said. "But there's a difference between thinking something is interesting and believing it."

The last question on the test Mr. Campbell passed out a week later asked students to explain two forms of evidence supporting evolutionary change and natural selection.

"I refuse to answer," Bryce wrote. "I don't believe in this..."
The article ends on a somewhat positive note; Bryce answers the question on another exam. Still, one gets a bit of an idea from the article just what Campbell is up against in North Florida, where fundamentalist groups like the Florida Baptist Convention have done their utmost to install and preserve multigenerational ignorance in the name of faith. They no doubt agree with Martin Luther's statement that
Reason is a whore, the greatest enemy that faith has.
Keep in mind that while Campbell does battle daily with the self-professed enemies of reason, he also receives some of the worst pay for a member of his profession anywhere in the country. Campbell could leave Florida, not face the ignorance and hostility generated by a couple of centuries of religious depredations, and get paid more for his efforts, too. Instead, he's sticking it out. Clearly, money isn't his motivation in this.

Ironically, North Florida is one of the best places in the western hemisphere to find abundant evidence of evolution at work. It is a hot spot for endemic species that exist at small distances from their more widespread phylogenetic relations. In particular, the unique North Florida ravine ecosystem is replete with species that are found nowhere else on earth. It is for that very reason that I'm going there next week to gather specimens of beetles and fungi for my own research in cooperation with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection which, thankfully, has not been overrun by agents of disenlightenment and was tremendously cooperative in granting permits to my colleague and I to undertake our investigation at three sites in the Big Bend region. Note that there are no fungi or Coleoptera species listed among the unique species in the previously linked catalog of unique organisms. That is almost certainly not the real case, but I'm sure that is an artifact of the anti-evolution majority in North Florida's legislative representation and general population.

Campbell has a ton of work ahead of him, and multiple generations of faith-based ignorance of how the world works will require multiple generations of effort if it is to change. For every David Campbell in North Florida there are probably a half dozen Teresa Yanceys, laboring away day in and day out to help insure the worthlessness of science education in that part of the country. Despite the incompetence and malfeasance of such individuals, they earn the same pay as good teachers and keep their jobs for just as long. That's an unfortunate situation, and I hope that the day will come when it is no longer the case.

I'm glad to see an article in the New York Times lauding David Campbell. He deserves far more than a journalistic pat on the back, as does Florida Citizens for Science. I don't think that I would have the patience to face what Campbell deals with, day after day, school year after school year, for the rest of my career. If I were him, I'd probably have sent my resumé to school districts in other states by now... and who would stand up to the Teresa Yanceys and private Christian academies in the state that produce the kind of ignorance, the scientific illiteracy, suffered by students like Bryce Haas?

I couldn't do it. I applaud Mr. Campbell for his sheer mental toughness in sticking his finger in the dyke that holds back the powerful tide of the disenlightenment that threatens not only Florida but our entire nation.

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August 23, 2008

Mushroom Season Makes the News

The proliferation of fungal fruiting bodies in Massachusetts this summer is making the news here. While that in itself is a good thing, the press always has to come up with an interesting angle that makes a story one of human interest. In the case of mushrooms, that usually winds up as warnings about mushroom poisonings. In fact, it's often about children being poisoned, even when it hasn't actually happened.

Still, I'm glad when my favorite kingdom gets some press, and in this case that press includes a television interview by WBZ with my PhD advisor:

WBZ-TV Massachusetts Mushroom Story Video
The story is a bit alarmist, of course, because that makes it interesting to people who normally don't care about mushrooms. The "won't somebody think of the children!" angle always sells. What the story also doesn't mention is that even most poisonous mushrooms aren't lethal mushrooms. They'll make you sick, but you won't die — although you might feel like you're going to. Of all the mushroom species found in North America, only a small fraction ever prove lethal, although I can certainly understand why the parent of some kid who eats a bit of an unidentified mushroom would be concerned. A good rule of thumb for reducing the risk if you happen to be a Massachusetts parent worried about your kid eating something nasty in your garden is to keep an eye out for any mushroom that has what looks like warts on its cap, a ring on its stem and a cup or collar at the base. Those are likely to be members of genus Amanita, and thus the most likely to be lethally poisonous. Go through the yard and remove them. They're generally among the more conspicuous fungi you'll see. You can remove every mushroom you see, but you're likely to spend a lot of time at it. Of course, you can also just keep a close watch on the kids, but it only takes a second of one's back being turned for a toddler to pop a bad fungus into his or her mouth. If you would like to see some of the various forms that Amanita can take, click here. Judging from what I've seen around town, the most common species right now is Amanita brunnescens, which has a cap colored various shades of brown and white to very light brown warts. It can get quite large and, while toxic, probably isn't going to cause death.

The Boston Globe is also running a story today on the prolific mushroom fruitings being seen in the area. It talks a bit more about amateur mycologists and not quite so much about the poisonings that haven't happened:

Everything's coming up mushrooms
Summer of rain has silver lining - a rare bonanza of fungi

By Tom Haines

No one loves the rewards of a rainy summer quite like a mycologist does.

"It's just, I'm telling you, cloud nine," said Elinoar Shavit of Concord.

Even on short walks, Shavit has easily spotted Boletus edulis (porcini), Craterellus fallax (black trumpet), Laetiporus sulphureus (chicken mushroom), and "chanterelles galore!"

After July brought twice the average rainfall to the region, prompting mycelium to fruit in abundance, mushroom maniacs - whether serious scientists or curious cooks - are reveling in a bounty seldom seen...

There are thousands of species of mushrooms that burst forth when conditions are right with bulbs and caps in craggy shelves and huddled clusters, and more. The mushrooms survive for a few hours or weeks, depending on species; some prefer spring, others summer or fall...

Shapes, colors, and composition also fascinate scientists and others who want to know exactly how things work. Experimenters of another sort favor certain mushrooms, which grow in New England only very occasionally but can cause hallucinations.

This year, though, even the usually disinterested among us are captivated by more kinds of mushrooms, in larger quantity - whether clumps of black trumpets or giant puffballs - popping up in the yard more or less overnight...

Local hospitals have seen a spike in calls, mostly from parents of toddlers who had popped mushrooms in their mouths. Most tastings have turned out to be harmless, and there have been no fatalities this year, according to Alfred Aleguas, clinical manager with the Regional Center for Poison Control and Prevention Serving Massachusetts and Rhode Island...

One close call came before a neighbor contacted Shavit, a contributing editor to Fungi magazine known for her ability to identify different species. The neighbor told Shavit she had picked 30 pounds of chanterelles, an elegant, edible specimen that is tasty when sauteed in oil with shallots and salt. On closer inspection, Shavit determined the suspected chanterelles were Omphalotus illudens, or Jack O' Lantern mushrooms, known to spur vomiting and diarrhea.

Norman "Dugie" Russell, who helps Children's Hospital Boston and Beverly Hospital with emergency mushroom identifications, warns casual pickers to study guidebooks and seek expert advice...
Again, the moral of the story here is pretty simple, aside from the fact that we mycologists and enthusiasts are having a wonderful year. If you don't know the difference between an Omphalotus and a Cantharellus on site, don't eat any mushrooms without having them identified by someone who has a grasp of diversity, because, frankly, it's very easy to tell those two genera apart. Omphalotus always grows on wood and has blade-like gills; Cantharellus grows on the ground and has vein-like "gills." If you think you've found some chanterelles (Cantharellus) and want to know for certain, please let me know. I'll be happy to take a look and tell you whether you've got the right mushrooms... for a small cut of your find, of course, if they do turn out to be chanterelles. I love the things. In fact, LL and I had some Craterellus cornucopioides for dinner just last night. They're my favorite.

It truly is an amazing year for mushrooms, whether they're edible or just beautiful. If you live in New England and have been curious to learn about fungi, this is the time to do it. Contact your local mycological society and get out on a few forays. A better year for sheer numbers and diversity is unlikely to come your way for another decade or two. You can find contact information for amateur mycological societies throughout the United States courtesy of the North American Mycological Association. Here are the ones in New England:
  • Connecticut:
    Berkshire Mycological Society
    c/o Jim Berlstein
    PO Box 247
    Norfolk, CT 06058-0247
    web: www.bms.iwarp.com
    email: berkshiremycology [at] lycos.com

    Connecticut Valley Mycological Society
    129 Stockburger Rd
    Moodus, CT 06469-1042
    email: janblanchard [at] comcast.net

  • Maine:
    Maine Mycological Society
    216 Huff's Mill Rd.
    Bowdoin, ME 04287-7138
    web: www.mushroomthejournal.com/mma/index.html
    email: mjpmm955i [at] gwi.net

  • Massachusetts:
    Boston Mycological Club
    20 Shirley St
    Ayer, MA 01432-1208
    web: www.bostonmycologicalclub.org
    email: georgeriner [at] mycogeo.com

  • New Hampshire:
    Monadnock Mushroomers Unlimited
    PO Box 1796
    Keene, NH 03431-1796
    email: beewing [at] cheshire.net

  • Northeastern US:
    Northeast Mycological Federation
    web: www.nemf.org
    email: ursula.hoffmann [at] lehman.cuny.edu

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August 19, 2008

Bigfoot Body: Scamsquatch is Made of Rubber

Color me surprised! The latest "evidence" of bigfoot, purported to have been discovered by Rick Dyer and Matthew Whitton and hawked by Tom Biscardi, turns out to indeed have been nothing more than a rubber suit. Biscardi is claiming that he wasn't in on the scam and that he was ripped off by Dyer and Whitton. Those two have apparently holed up somewhere until the heat dies down.

Bigfoot Body Revealed to Be Halloween Costume
By Paul Wagenseil, Fox News


The excitement over a supposed Bigfoot body that built all last week, culminating Friday in a circus-like press conference in Palo Alto, Calif., collapsed like a wet soufflé over the weekend as an independent investigator found out it was all fake.

SearchingforBigfoot.com owner Tom Biscardi paid an "undisclosed sum" to Matthew Whitton and Rick Dyer, the two Georgia men who say they found the body, for their frozen corpse and the privilege of trotting them out in front of TV cameras.

At the same time, Biscardi sent self-described "Sasquatch detective" Steve Kulls back to Georgia to check out the body.

Kulls, it's safe to say, was severely disappointed.

The upshot? The real Bigfoot, once found, is now missing. So are Whitton, Dyer and Biscardi's money...

"I extracted some [hair] from the alleged corpse and examined it and had some concerns," Kulls writes. "We burned said sample and said hair sample melted into a ball uncharacteristic of hair."

Kulls called Biscardi in California, who told him to heat the body to speed up thawing.

"Within one hour we were able to see the partially exposed head," Kulls continues. "I was able to feel that it seemed mostly firm, but unusually hollow in one small section. This was yet another ominous sign."

Then came the clincher.

"Within the next hour of thaw, a break appeared up near the feet area. ... I observed the foot which looked unnatural, reached in and confirmed it was a rubber foot..."

The Biscardi team immediately went into crisis mode. Biscardi called Whitton and Dyer at their California hotel. They admitted it was a hoax and agreed to sign a promissory note at a meeting set for 8 a.m. Pacific time at the hotel.

But when Biscardi got there, he "found that they had left..."
Bigfoot's true identity revealed!There you go, folks, Georgia bigfoot was a rubber hoax. The funniest part of this is that Biscardi bills himself as a "bigfoot expert." That's a term about as meaningful as "faith healing." Bigfoot experts aren't expert at anything other than self-promotion. No evidence of giant ape-like hominids in present day North America has ever been found, nor will any ever be found. There isn't an ecosystem in North America that has all of the right resources to support a population of very large simians of a size capable of sustaining itself in perpetuity. Even we humans have to utilize technology to be able to live here. Unless bigfoot were engaged in complex social behavior, building shelter of some kind and coordinating hunting parties with its fellows and the like, there's no way anything like it could persist on this continent.

The closest thing we have to a sasquatch in this part of the planet is probably Ron Jeremy. As far as I know, he engages in complex social behavior. If you see what you think might be a bigfoot lurking in the woods, say hello. It's probably Ron.

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Blog Logged by Worcester Magazine

An entry I wrote recently about my inclination to shake my fist and scream at the Asian longhorned beetle has been blog-logged by Worcester Magazine. It's becoming something of a hot topic around town, I guess. Fellow Worcester blogger Jeff of Wormtown Taxi has written several bits on it, including this newest one.

I've also just learned this morning of the Massachusetts Introduced Pests Outreach Blog. There's useful information there about how to recognize the damage done by the beetles even if you don't see the beetle itself. I suggest that any locals take a look at MIPO Blog and learn how they can help their state keep track of this infestation. It's always possible that the extra bit of information you provide could be the one that tips the scales against the big bad bug.

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Asian Longhorned Beetles Employ a Fungal Mutualist in Digesting Wood

I wrote recently about the appearance of the Asian longhorned beetle in the Worcester area. The insect is a highly problematic invasive species that's likely to do a great deal of damage to hardwood tree populations in the area before it's brought to heel. In fact, the unfortunate truth is that it is likely to be many years before it's stopped, and if it's like most invasives it's probably here to stay, maintaining at least small populations that will allow for outbreaks from time to time when conditions are favorable for elevated rates of reproduction.

It behooves us, therefore, to understand the biology of Anoplophora glabripennis as thoroughly as possible. One of the fundamental questions on the road to understanding the ecology of any organism is, what does it eat and how does it eat it? When it comes to beetles, a fungus or two (or twenty) is frequently involved. Fungi are everywhere in the biosphere, but there are few interkingdom mutualisms as old and as intimate as those between Coleoptera and fungi. A forthcoming paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science has found evidence that a different sort of symbiosis is at work in the Asian longhorned beetle, giving it the ability to digest living wood — a very unusual ability among beetles and one that is key to Anoplophora's destructive potential.

Novel fungus helps beetles to digest hard wood

A little known fungus tucked away in the gut of Asian longhorned beetles helps the insect munch through the hardest of woods according to a team of entomologists and biochemists. Researchers say the discovery could lead to innovative methods of controlling the invasive pest, and potentially offer more efficient ways of breaking down plant biomass for generating biofuels.

Microbes in the gut of insects are known to break down cellulose, but little is known about how, or whether, insects degrade lignin. This natural polymer helps plants stay upright and protects them from most forms of microbial attack.

"Lignin is nature's plastic and any organism that wants to get to the sugars in a plant has to be able to get past this protective barrier," said Ming Tien, study co-author and Penn State professor of biochemistry and molecular biology. "We suspect that the fungus produces enzymes that help the beetles degrade lignin."

Before this report, it was thought that insects are unable to extensively break down lignin, and that they get around the problem either by feasting on wood that has already degraded, or by living close to fungi that can degrade the wood for them...

The researchers compared the chemical structure of non-degraded wood before and after it had passed through the gut of two wood-eating insects. To measure the degree of change in the lignin, they first fed pin oak wood to Asian longhorned beetles. Next they fed ponderosa pine wood to the Pacific dampwood termite, an insect that typically eats only dead wood.

Chemical analyses of feces from the two bugs indicated that they are able to alter the chemical structure of lignin by selectively adding or removing certain groups of molecules from the polymer...

"This fungus has genes that then make enzymes," explained Hoover, whose team's findings appear today (Aug. 18) in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. "We have been able to detect messages from the [fungal] DNA, which get translated into enzymes." [NOTE: I have checked the PNAS Early Edition and the paper is not available yet; this is typical for PNAS. It's a vexing problem that I really wish they would correct. It takes far too long for material to appear after authors are led to believe their publication will be made available on a particular date.]

While the researchers have identified the fungus residing in the gut of the Asian longhorned beetle, they have yet to find one in the gut of the termite.

"The types of chemical changes we see in the beetle are similar to those seen in the white-rot fungus," said Geib. "Changes that we see in the termite are similar to those in the brown-rot fungus. The chemical changes to the lignin are similar..."

"This type of fungus [in the Asian longhorned beetle] is known to cause disease in plants," said Hoover, whose work is funded by the Alphawood Foundation and the Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. "But this particular strain appears to be unique. It looks like these insects somehow acquired the fungus to live in their gut and help them break down wood..."
Because of the way that this release has been written, a lot of information has to be inferred. I look forward to the day when the actual paper is made available, whenever that may come, so that we can learn more about what's been discovered — including the identity of the fungus, which is only referred to as a "novel fungus" in the release itself.

Still, it sounds from the release that the fungus is likely to be a basidiomycete. The reference to it as being like a white-rotter means that it likely produces two different varieties of peroxidases, perhaps both lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase if it's anything like saprophytic polypores like Ganoderma and Polyporus. As the release mentions that the fungus is capable of living freely, outside the guts of Asian longhorned beetles, as a pathogen, there's a strong likelihood that it's not a yeast, such as those found in the digestive tracts of Bolitotherus cornutus (see this paper by Suh et al. for a background on yeasts in beetle bellies). It would be very unusual for a yeast to produce lignin-degrading enzymes, particularly in large enough quantities to be useful to a wood-eating insect. Termites get around the problem of lignin's refractory nature with a battery of dinoflagellates and bacteria. The use of a mutualist fungus is an exciting new find in symbiology.

From the release, it also sounds like the researchers suspect that the longhorned beetles may have multiple allies working on their behalf. Gut flora is generally a complex thing, so that's likely, and the release itself doesn't make any mention of the relative importance of the novel fungus in the overall picture. Nonetheless, the discovery of the fungus could provide one more target in the attempt to control a particularly dangerous invasive species. In tinkering with ecology, whether on the scale of a digestive system or a forest, removing just one organism frequently has a ripple effect on total health. Whether this might turn out to be the case here — handcuff the fungus, kill the beetle — remains to be seen.

I anticipate finding out the identity of the new fungus and where it fits into the taxonomy of lignin degraders. In the meantime, I plan on being up on Wachusett on Wednesday to look for polypores, tenebs... and Asian longhorned beetles, unfortunately.

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August 15, 2008

Why Chili Peppers Bring a Tear to Your Eye: It's the Fungus

Esto burrito es muy caliente!There are myriad things for which we should be grateful to the kingdom Fungi. Without them, our forests would be brimming with kindling, all of our bread would be crackers, and we'd have no adult beverages with which to drown our sorrows and make us feel witty and attractive when other elements of nature and nurture haven't conspired to truly make us so. Some of them provide the raw material for anti-cancer drugs and antibiotics, and ongoing research shows certain fungi to be promising possibilities to produce biofuels and extract various toxins from the ground.

Now we learn that there's one more thing for which we have to thank even pathogenic fungi. Without them, Mexican and Indian food would be bland. New research supports the hypothesis that chili peppers spice up our lives because they evolved a chemical weapon in order to combat fungi that would otherwise have digested their seeds.

Self-Defense: Why Chili Peppers Pack Heat
By Andrea Thompson


Chilies, like other fruits, use sugars and lipids to attract birds and other hungry animals that will eat them and eventually scatter their seeds in the process.

But fungi and plant-feeding insects, which puncture chilies' outer skin and allow the fungi to invade, can also try to get in on the meal. Working together, they can destroy a fruit's seeds before it gets a chance to reproduce...

Chilies have evolved a pungent solution to this problem: They produce chemicals called capsaicinoids that protect them from fungal attack by dramatically slowing microbial growth. The capsaicinoids also produce the tear-inducing heat associated with the spicy fruit, though this doesn't bother hungry birds.

"Capsaicin doesn't stop the dispersal of seeds because birds don't sense the pain and so they continue to eat peppers, but the fungus that kills pepper seeds is quite sensitive to this chemical," Tewksbury said.

He added that the chilies' spicy defense mechanism is "a great example of the power of natural selection..."

Plants that lived in areas where fungal attacks were common also produced higher levels of capsaicinoids. But plants that lived in less dangerous areas were as mild as a bell pepper, the researchers found...
I know from personal observation that some mammals aren't bothered by capsaicinoids, too. In particular, I know that raccoons have no problem dealing with the compounds that make we humans cry. I've watched them eat Indian food that I couldn't eat myself because of the overwhelming, mouth-searing chili content. This makes some sense; the peppers' seeds can pass through the digestive tract of a mammal for dispersal just as they do through that of a bird.

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The Bigfoot Body: Sasquatch, Lies and Videotape

Word is flying everywhere around the internet of the alleged recovery of a dead bigfoot in Georgia. A press conference will be held today in Palo Alto, CA at which the carcass will be revealed. My bet is that it will turn out to be yet another hoax, the main effect of which will be to drum up credulous customers for the business for Tom Biscardi, the spokesperson at the conference... which just so happens to be in conducting bigfoot tours.

Rock me sexy sasquatchIn fact, the main characters in this latest foray into the wooful world of cryptozoology have already been caught participating in a hoax related to this precise event. A video shot by bigfootologists Matthew Whitton and Rick Dyer featured commentary by supposed Dr. Paul Van Buren of Texas — but Dr. Van Buren turned out to be none other than Martin Whitton, Matthew Whitton's brother, and not a doctor at all.

...it's been revealed that a video filmed by the pair, featuring an interview with a "scientist", was a hoax.

The video, uploaded to YouTube by Mr Dyer, shows a "Dr Paul Van Buren" after he had flown from Texas to Georgia to view the Bigfoot body.

After seeing the corpse, Dr Van Buren says: "It's obviously a male, we looked at a very, very large primate male, it doesn't fit into any of the taxonomic groups I can think of.

"Unbelievable, I'm still shaking... I've never seen anything like this before."

However, Dr Van Buren was later outed as being Mr Whitton's brother, Martin, and the pair was forced to concede in a subsequent video that the interview was a hoax.

Source

Other aspects of the whole circus also scream "hoax," starting with the simple fact that bigfoot is supposed to be a denizen of the Pacific Northwest. Was the unfortunate crypto-ape on vacation with his family in Georgia when tragedy befell? This, of course, entirely ignores the fact that the very artifact that started the modern bigfoot myth was a footprint found near a northwestern logging camp in 1958 that itself turned out to have been manufactured. To date, there has been no evidence found that creatures like sasquatch inhabit North America. Indeed, most of the areas in which they have been sighted to date don't have enough resources available to support a population of giant apes that could have sustained itself for more than a few weeks.

The claims being made in this case are so dubious, in fact, that even fellow bigfoot enthusiasts have their doubts. For example, there's Michael Rugg, curator of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum of Felton, California:
Because of the way the information was revealed, the way the men in Georgia have been acting, and the fact that the only Bigfoot researcher that they allowed to see the body was Tom Biscardi, is a little questionable. Based on past experience, this is more likely a hoax than not.

Source

In fact, the loudest voice in the latest bigfoot revelation, Thomas Biscardi, doesn't exactly have a sterling record of skepticism when it comes to his favorite oversized simian. Biscardi was duped several years ago by others who claimed to have found a bigfoot body. He appeared on national news at that time to trumpet the discovery... only to later issue a retraction when the whole thing turned out to be a hoax.

Another bigfoot enthusiast with doubts about this incident is bigfoot enthusiast Jeff Meldrum, a "prominent bigfoot researcher" (what does that phrase even mean? How does one do research on something for which no evidence exists?):
Jeffrey Meldrum, a prominent Bigfoot researcher, told science journal Scientific American: "I'm extremely sceptical about this Bigfoot claim.

"I've had interactions with Tom Biscardi [a well-known Bigfoot hunter who is holding the press conference] in the past, and based on that history, I would say that anything he is involved in is suspect.

"What I've seen so far is not compelling in the least, and I think the pictures cast grave doubts on their claim. It just looks like a costume with some fake guts thrown on top for effect..."

Source

Still, there are going to be people who want so badly to believe that the bigfoot hoaxers really have evidence this time that nothing will dissuade them, even when it turns out that there isn't any of the claimed DNA evidence (has anyone actually extracted and sequenced DNA from the alleged bigfoot body yet?) and that what Rick Dyer says that he sweated and pulled from the North Georgia woods (source) isn't the first physical evidence of a North American ape-man standing over seven feet tall.

In fact, the body — said to be secreted in a freezer somewhere near Atlanta — won't even be at the press conference. Just bad photos, apparently. Nobody outside of the hoaxers themselves have had the opportunity, nor are likely to get the opportunity in the future, to scientifically examine the supposed sasquatch specimen under controlled circumstances with objective instrumentation. Still, there will always be true-believers who are more ready to turn the inevitable revelation of a hoax into a media-and-science conspiracy to suppress the truth because somehow all the evil scientists and libuhrul media can't bear the thought of a big ape actually existing, so earth-shattering would it be to... well... something...
...I personally think that the DISINFORMATION SWEATSHOPS, are presently burning candles around the clock, in order to discredit the carcass, the finders, the buyers and anybody who steps up to the plate to concur that the body is real. They won't let this one become official without a long and bloody fight. Because then they will be out of their cush jobs, of harassment, illegal eavedropping, tracking researchers, ruining research areas, more harassment, funding local Bigfoot Bigot Clubs, paying $$lunch money to snitches who attend Bigfoot meetings and rat out the attendees, talking to employers of those attendees to get them fired, and oh, did I mention harassment yet? Harassment of Bigfoot researchers is not just a cush job with benefits and retirement. It is a way of life!

Furthermore, many sour grapes researchers will seek to discredit the carcass so that the decks will still be clear for them to somehow produce a carcass. Anthropologists from around the country, will be quietly bribed to publicly take a stance that the body is a hoax. We will see a book come out of manufactured lies, about the body being a hoax. We will primarily see TV coverage of the body being a hoax, because that is all that the news editors will allow. We are about to view a Disinformation Propaganda Campaign of unprecedented proportions that has unlimited $$$$FUNDING to back it up. After the momentum of the wave of excitement starts to die down, that is when the Disinformation Artists will kick in the after burners to "SET THE RECORD STRAIGHT"! Now, just sit back and watch the movie reel reveal the story of how American public opinion is tactically manipulated by carefully choreographed news stories...

themanwiththeplan, on Cryptozoology.com

Uuuhhhh, yeah, sure. All you droids, get back in the trees! When do I get my paycheck for harassing bigfoot researchers?

Face it, folks, these latest hoaxers are good ol' boys messin' with sasquatch.

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Invasive Insects: This Time, It's Personal

Asian Longhorned beetle quarantine area around WorcesterThe Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis, has arrived in Massachusetts. In fact, it seems to have popped up in the Worcester area and begun to spread. The infestation zone now extends as far as West Boylston according to a story in the Worcester Telegram & Gazette. The map you see accompanying this update shows the quarantine area.

Because I am a rather sappy animal lover who can find admirable qualities in nearly every living thing, I admit to having a certain soft spot for certain invasive animal species. The Cuban tree frog, for instance, I found rather friendly and endearing when I used to encounter them in Florida. I could never bring myself to kill one. I once allowed one to ride around on my head, in fact.

If there are any Asian longhorned beetles reading this entry, however, be advised that I feel no such sentiments toward you. In particular, you are hereby warned to stay far away from Wachusett Mountain. If I find you in my study site on the south slope, I will show no mercy. You will be crushed and/or turned over to the authorities and/or fed to a large, spiny lizard.

Anoplophora glabripennis, the Asian longhorned beetleAsian longhorned beetles kill hardwood trees. That, in turn, destroys polypore habitat which consequently destroys the favored living conditions for more benign Coleoptera like Diaperis maculata and Bolitotherus cornutus and that, my fine speckled arthropods, screws with my research.

You do not want to screw with my research. Anything that interferes with it is to be eliminated.

Were I Captain Kirk, I'd be shaking my fist and shouting "Khaaaaaaaan!" about now. Then again, shouting "Anoplophora!" just doesn't have the same ring to it.

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August 06, 2008

Helping to Preserve Worcester Woodland: Moreland Woods

It looks like I'm going to be participating in an effort by the Greater Worcester Land Trust and City of Worcester Conservation Commission to conserve approximately 20 acres of open land in the northwestern part of town. The parcel, Moreland Woods, is said to be a mix of hardwood and red pine. I don't know much about it yet and haven't had the opportunity to visit the site. Not much is known about what flora and fauna is present in the area, so the GWLT is trying to assemble a group of biologists and naturalists to survey the area and catalog the biota. I don't know yet who is involved; this is still preliminary. There's at least one person from the Massachusetts Audubon Society signed on, and myself and labling &e.

A preliminary walk-through of the site with a state inspector hasn't revealed anything unusual about it, which would mean that the area wouldn't be conserved. That was only a cursory glance at the place, though. I guess it will be up to the scientists and naturalists who participate in the next phase of investigation to take a closer look and determine whether there's justification for the use of the grant money available for purchasing the land.

I'd be focusing on the fungi, along with &e, and also on the Coleoptera species present to some extent. I don't yet know when the project would begin, but I'd imagine it will be sometime after I get back from MSA and hopefully not while I'm in Florida.

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August 04, 2008

Biologists Bombed in Santa Cruz in the Name of Protecting Fruit Flies

Violent idiots think that fruit flies have rights and that it's worth blowing things up to protect them.Numerous UC Santa Cruz biologists have been threatened in pamphlets left at a coffee house in California. The home of one was bombed on Saturday while he and his family were at home. A car belonging to a second researcher, whose name has not yet been released, was also bombed and a third researcher received a threatening phone call but no explosives were found on the scene.

The reason for the bombings? One of the biologists, David Feldheim, studies the development of the nervous system of mice in order to learn how the brain and eyes work together and thereby lay down basic research that can someday be used to treat those who have lost their sight to illness or injury. A second one works on Drosophila. He was attacked for using fruit flies in his experiments. Of course, we get the obligatory statement from outspoken nutsack Jerry Vlasak about how this is justified because fruit flies have rights and it's OK to bomb people's homes to defend them. I guess that when you're a fruitcake it seems logical to defend the supposed rights of fruit flies "by any means necessary."

Santa Cruz firebombs look familiar
Wyatt Buchanan and Demian Bulwa, San Francisco Chronicle


The devices used in two firebombings targeting UC Santa Cruz biologists are similar to some used in the past by animal rights activists, investigators said Sunday.

The bombs were so powerful they were like "Molotov cocktails on steroids," said Santa Cruz police Capt. Steve Clark.

One struck the home of assistant biology Professor David Feldheim on Saturday morning, forcing him to flee with his family. The other exploded just a few minutes earlier, gutting a car parked outside the campus home of a second researcher.

Later, Santa Cruz County sheriff's deputies went to the home of a third researcher who received a threatening telephone message, but officers found no explosives.

More than 50 investigators, including some from the FBI's regional terrorism task force, are looking into the attacks.

Feldheim, whose townhouse was firebombed just after 5:30 a.m., uses mice in laboratory research on brain formation.

He told The Chronicle that he and his wife, along with their 7-year-old son and 6-year-old daughter, had to drop a ladder from the window of a second-floor bedroom to escape after smoke filled the home's first floor...

Feldheim was treated at a hospital and released, police said. Clark said the attack on Feldheim is being considered an act of terrorism and attempted murder.

Clark said the bomb at Feldheim's house was similar to those used by animal rights extremists in the past, adding, "There are instructions on how to make it on their Web sites."

Feldheim and the unidentified faculty member who received the threatening message were named on pamphlets that were left on a stack of newspapers in a downtown Santa Cruz coffee shop last Tuesday, Clark said. The unsigned pamphlets at Caffe Pergolesi, which printed 13 researchers' pictures and addresses, called them murderers and torturers and said, "Animal abusers everywhere beware."

The name of the researcher whose car was bombed was not on the pamphlets, Clark said...

A different view was expressed today by Jerry Vlasak, a Los Angeles spokesman for the North American Animal Liberation Press Office, which often posts on its Web site communiques from activists taking credit for attacks. He said the benefit of animal research does not justify its expense or the exploitation of animals.

Vlasak said the bombers likely were not trying to hurt Feldheim, but were instead "trying to send a message to this guy, who won't listen to reason, that if he doesn't stop hurting animals, more drastic measures will be taken ... it's certainly not an initial tactic, but a tactic of last resort."

Feldheim, whose work includes introducing genes into living mouse brains, said Sunday that his research "is aimed at understanding how brain connections form during development, with special focus on the visual system." He said the work is important "so we can learn how to fix these connections after damage due to injury or disease..."
Jerry Vlasak is the leader of a bona fide terrorist organization and makes no bones about it. Why he's walking around free is beyond me. This mujahadeen should be spooning with a large convict bearing a neck tattoo in a cell in federal prison. Our government has managed to sweep up numerous individuals in Afghanistan and hold them without charge for years in Cuba but they can't manage to round up Vlasak and his stinky hippie axis of evil and provide them the due process to which they are entitled? Sounds like extreme incompetence to me — either that or it simply hasn't been a priority. The current administration doesn't care much for science, after all, so how much priority have they given to putting a stop to this?

The Chronicle article refers to these incidents as "an escalation in a series of protests against UC researchers." This isn't an escalation of protest; these are bombings. Someone's home was set on fire and the lives of himself and his children were immediately put in peril by a group of lunatics who are more concerned with the lives of mice and fruit flies than they are with those of humans. That's not "protest," that is, as FBI investigators point out, attempted murder. If I march outside of a business while carrying a sign, if I sit in the doorway and refuse to move, that's protest. The moment I take out a gun and start firing at office workers, it ceases to be protest and starts to be attempted murder. By the standard used in calling this an "escalation of protest," Jim Adkisson was protesting when he opened fire in a church last week. Buchanan and/or Bulwa should be ashamed of themselves for using that word to describe the bombing of someone's home. Is it an "escalation of protest" if I were to be so incensed by this that I waited for them in the Chronicle's parking lot with a machete? Somehow, I don't think they'd use the word "protest" in describing the incident to the police while ambulance attendance packed their severed digits in ice; they'd rightly use words like "assault" and "attempted murder" and "unjustified attack" and "maniac." Acts of violence, attempts at murder, are not legitimate protest. Setting fire to a house containing a seven year old child is even further from it.

Jerry Vlasak's moronic assertion that the bombers didn't mean to hurt Feldheim and his family is so unbelievably stupid that the man should be taken into protective custody at the very least to insure that he doesn't cause himself injury by wandering into a busy intersection. Anybody who buys a statement like that should be treated likewise. The intent of this terrorist act was precisely to cause harm. Feldheim had to be taken to the hospital. The house filled with smoke and the people inside were lucky enough to be able to escape by climbing out of a second-story window. Who in their right mind wouldn't see not only the physical damage that has been done here but the psychological harm that has been done to the victims? How well will Feldheim's children be sleeping? How many nightmares have been inspired, how much fear, how much trauma?

Mice and fruit flies don't have any rights at all. They're born, maybe they reproduce, and they end up as sustenance for some predator. Rights are a social and political construct; insects and rodents have no concept of such things. By the same token, the terrorists involved in these incidents — including Vlasak — should lose all of their rights. They've demonstrated their violent intent toward society and should lose the benefits of membership therein. Vlasak's rights should extend at this point only to that of remaining silent and having an attorney present, and to a speedy trial, and those are the only ones to which he is entitled. He and his junior Unabomber crew deserve even less consideration than do the mice and flies whose lives they consider more valuable than those of the human beings who have dedicated their lives to better understanding the biology and ecology of those creatures for the benefit not only of humans but of the natural world itself — a world which the terrorists themselves don't begin to understand and care nothing about.

As members of civilized society, however, I do think we should give these monsters what they want once they're appropriately rounded up. We can dress them in organic orange jumpsuits and leave them manacled to trees and rocks in the wilderness and let them commune with nature all they like for the day or two that they'd survive their punishment. I still think they have a valuable role to play in the magnificent web of being that is life on earth. They can do community service by explaining to bears, rats, mountain lions, mosquitoes and ants the rights to which they believe the animals are entitled as their entrails are being extracted and maggots hatch in their eye sockets. We can even reduce the duration of their sentences if they can remember the words to "The Circle of Life" while they're being consumed by their clients.

Once they've become bear burgers and vulture vittles, those of us who actually do care about the well-being of this planet and its inhabitants enough to dedicate ourselves to understanding how it all works together will be able to get back to work without pondering whether or not we should be arming ourselves against a cowardly militia of malodorous malefactors.

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August 03, 2008

Tiny Snakes and Natural Selection on Offspring Size

Happy Herp Day! One of Tycho's very distant cousins is making news in zoological circles today. It's the world's tiniest snake, which has just been discovered living in a tiny patch of habitat on a tiny island. Cuteness factor aside, Leptotyphlops carlae also tells us a tiny bit more about how natural selection is generally manifested in snakes that are too small to have numerous offspring capable of surviving on their own.

World's smallest snake found in Barbados

Barbara Kennedy
science@psu.edu
http://www.science.psu.edu
814-863-4682

The world's smallest species of snake, with adults averaging just under four inches in length, has been identified on the Caribbean island of Barbados. The species -- which is as thin as a spaghetti noodle and small enough to rest comfortably on a U.S. quarter -- was discovered by Blair Hedges, an evolutionary biologist at Penn State. Hedges and his colleagues also are the discoverers of the world's smallest frog and lizard species, which too were found on Caribbean islands. The most recent discovery will be published on 4 August 2008 in the journal Zootaxa.

Hedges found the new snake, a type of threadsnake, in a tiny forest fragment on the eastern side of Barbados. He believes the species is rare because most of its potential habitat has been replaced by buildings and farms...

Hedges determined that the Barbados species is new to science on the basis of its genetic differences from other snake species and its unique color pattern and scales...

According to Hedges, the smallest and largest species of animals tend to be found on islands, where species can evolve over time to fill ecological niches in habitats that are unoccupied by other organisms. Those vacant niches exist because some types of organisms, by chance, never make it to the islands...

In contrast to larger species -- some of which can lay up to 100 eggs in a single clutch -- the smallest snakes, and the smallest of other types of animals, usually lay only one egg or give birth to one offspring. Furthermore, the smallest animals have young that are proportionately enormous relative to the adults. For example, the hatchlings of the smallest snakes are one-half the length of an adult, whereas the hatchlings of the largest snakes are only one-tenth the length of an adult. The Barbados snake is no exception to this pattern. It produces a single slender egg that occupies a significant portion of the mother's body.

"If a tiny snake were to have two offspring, each egg could occupy only half the space that is devoted to reproduction within its body. But then each of the two hatchlings would be half the normal size, perhaps too small to function as a snake or in the environment," said Hedges. "The fact that tiny snakes produce only one massive egg -- relative to the size of the mother -- suggests that natural selection is trying to keep the size of hatchlings above a critical limit in order to survive..."

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August 01, 2008

Gel of the Day: Sarcodon what?

You might recall that I've twice now collected what I suspect to be a rarely-collected fungus, Sarcodon underwoodii, in the past few weeks. The first collection was made inside Worcester city limits on July 11 and the second time from the Wachusett State Reservation on July 17. I should mention that on my last trip to Wachusett all of the prospective S. underwoodii was gone and the more common S. imbricatum has replaced it entirely. The latter fungus has quite different coloration, the background being a red-brown instead of S. underwoodii's buff.

I've been trying to get enough DNA out of my collections to sequence and so make a positive identification so that I can let the people who manage the land on which I've made these collections know that they have an unusual species present. I tried earlier this week and got nothing. The context of the fungus is loaded with pigments that interfere with DNA amplification. I took a second pass at the problem, though, and let my samples digest in proteinase K for more than two hours during extraction. That seems to have done the trick. I've got PCR product galore and expect to sequence the nuclear ribosomal large subunit and ITS early next week. Here's the gel:

Sarcodon sp. gel
Lanes 3, 5 and 6 are from the fruiting body collected on July 11 and 7 through 12 are from the Wachusett specimen.

By middle of next week, I should know whether both of these really are S. underwoodii and increase what's known about the ecology of the two areas from which I collected them just a tiny bit.

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July 31, 2008

Wachusett Wednesday: Eat and Be Eaten Edition

I spent most of my energy on looking for beetle-infested polypores during yesterday's visit to my field site at Wachusett Mountain. Nonetheless, I saw a number of interesting specimens among the prolific mycofauna and collected a few. This included a couple of very interesting and rarely collected fungi and one truly excellent edible. Two of the fungi presented here, Nyctalis agaricoides and Elaphocordyceps ophioglossoides, specialize in eating other fungi. Cannibal fungi and tasty Lactarius are automatically interesting things, but that would leave out an oddball Cortinarius species known only from Massachusetts that I also present here. The flies were interesting, too, but I mean that in a different way. A species of brown fly with white-banded wings kept the foray particularly exciting as they bit chunks out of exposed skin, undeterred by repeated application of DEET. Yes, it hurt. The collections made yesterday are almost worth it, though.






































The genus Coltricia is collectively known in colloquial terms as the "fairy stools." They're stipitate-pileate members of the order Hymenochaetales. The majority of this order look more like polypores in general morphology and a number of them are resupinates (e.g., they form crust-like growths). This species, Coltricia cinnamomea, is unusual in being a hymenochaete that has a distinct cap-and-stem arrangement; it's probably an example of convergent evolution. The morphology has arisen independently several times in the Basidiomycetes. Despite the similarity of appearances, Coltricia are about as closely related to "true" polypores like Polyporus as humans are to shrews.
As far as I've been able to find, Cortinarius dionysae has been collected only in Massachusetts. The purple color you see in these photos fades very quickly once the mushroom is removed from the substrate, changing to a pale brownish color within a few minutes as the mushroom dries. The largest pileus was very nearly 10 cm in diameter and the stipe is quite robust as well, terminating in a large bulb at the base. The universal veil leaves a sheath on the lower stipe that has a free collar, reminiscent of those commonly found in Amanita. Unlike most purple corts, C. dionysae has almost no bitter taste. The spores are shaped like lemons, also a bit of a departure from most other members of the genus. The flesh inside this mushroom is mostly white, but strong purple streaks can also be seen, particularly in the cap and top of the stipe. The edibility of this mushroom isn't known, but many corts are poisonous and some of the purple ones can be particularly nasty. I wouldn't suggest being the one to find out; it probably wouldn't be lethal, but it could do some serious damage to the digestive system.
Elaphocordyceps ophioglossoides is one of the most interesting fungi in the world, and not just because its scientific name is such a mouthful. Most corcycepioid fungi are parasites on insects, killing them in rather spectacular and gruesome ways. Think Alien here. The spores infect a host, sometimes altering its behavior, and eventually the fruiting body emerges from the hapless arthropod's body. E. ophioglossoides, however, is one of a handful of these ascomycetes that have made the jump to some other host, in this case another fungus whose fruiting body is a false truffle in the genus Elaphomyces. Others parasites in the same genus haven't made that jump, though, and the closest relatives of the fungus you see in these photos are parasites of cicada nymphs. In an important sense, this host jumping is crystal clear evidence for an evolutionary mechanism called host-jumping. Researchers Naruo Nikoh and Takema Fukatsu published one of my favorite papers ever written about fungi on this very subject:
Nikoh N and T Fukatsu. 2000. Interkingdom Host Jumping Underground: Phylogenetic Analysis of Entomoparasitic Fungi of the Genus Cordyceps. Molecular Biology and Evolution 17:629-638
In the time intervening, and based partly upon their work, the genus Cordyceps has been split up quite a bit. Check out Joey Spatafora's exhaustive website on the group of fascinating fungi, An Electronic Monograph of Cordyceps and Related Fungi, for more about the current state of knowledge about these intriguing parasites.
It took me about an hour to figure out that this is Inocybe tahquamenonensis, a fungus that isn't at all rare but is seldom collected because it's small and nearly impossible to see against the forest floor. Unlike many members of its genus, this Inocybe is also odorless. Many of the Inocybes have odors variously described as crushed green corn, bleach or spermatic (which brings up some intersting questions of how mycologists might spend their free time that we won't get into here). Personally, I have a very poor sense of smell and in the past relied on former labling (and now associate professor at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, though his faculty page isn't up yet) and Inocybe expert Brandon Matheny to help me out with collections of this genus. He can actually distinguish subtleties of these stinky mushroom's aromas. I can divide them only into "stinky" and "not quite so stinky" categories. Still, he's promised free beer at the MSA conference next month, so I'm sure he wouldn't mind my bringing along a bag or two full of these mushrooms for inspection by his far more educated nose.


Eating any Inocybe is a bad idea. Most of them are poisonous. Some also contain hallucinogens, but the other compounds present insure that you'll have a very bad trip.

Nyctalis agaricoides grows on dead Russula mushrooms; the slimy, mealy black corpse in these photos was probably Russula compacta as this collection was made from the area dominated by R. compacta that I was in two weeks ago and it is still largely overrun with that mushroom. There are only a few species of Nyctalis and they're a strange bunch. As you can see from these photos, they look like typical agaricoid fungi, but they're definitely not. In the second image, you can see that they lack either gills, pores or teeth. Where the gills should be there is instead a layer of translucent, very stiff gelatinous material that starts out white and turns a buff-brown color in older specimens. While it's technically a basidiomycete, N. agaricoides makes few or no basidia (I couldn't find any in the specimens I collected), and that's probably why it no longer bothers making a hymenium like most of its kin. When it want to reproduce, this mushroom simply clones itself. It walls off a hyphal tip and turns it into an asexual structure called a chlamydospore (here's a photo of the chlamydospores of this species), and these are produced not under the cap like in most basidiomycetes but on top< of the cap, which degenerates into a mass of beige fluff. The spores aren't forcibly discharged, either. They're dispersed by the wind and look for another dead Russula to germinate upon. Each of the offspring is an exact copy of the parent since no sexual recombination takes place. Other sexually-reproducing fungi can also form chlamydospores when circumstances force them to do so, but Nyctalis is unusual in having given up sexual reproduction in favor of parthenogenesis almost completely.


A word of warning if you should happen to find any of these and think about bringing them home. They smell bad. Awful. They give off a powerful odor that combines garlic and phenolic compounds that can become nauseating in short order when confined to a room. The spore masses atop the fruiting bodies are very easily aerosolized, too. I learned this yesterday when I opened my collection box and was greeted by a puff of spores that I promptly inhaled. I could not only smell the things, I could taste them. Sucking down a lungful of asexual spores from an organism that lives as a scavenger, and has some mechanism by which it prevents the corpses upon which it thrives from drying out as they normally would, is likely a very bad idea. While it's unlikely that I'll wake one morning to find these pale little ghouls protruding from my ribcage, I would strongly suggest to others who might want to work with Nyctalis to do so under a hood or while wearing a pollen mask. The spores from these specimens were globular and 13 microns in diameter; use appropriate air filtration.


I can't imagine anyone wanting to try eating something that grows on slimy mushroom corpses, but I can't imagine these critters would taste anything other than perfectly horrible. I have no idea as to whether they're poisonous. Despite their being fairly repulsive, I find them very interesting and would like to know more about how these things evolved. I'll likely sequence them and check into the literature to learn more.

Moving away now from fungus that might eat you, here's a fungus that's good to eat. This is Lactarius volemus, which I consider a choice edible. I've collected and eaten these before; the last time was in Florida in 2002. Because of color variation I wound up collecting several of these yesterday, so half went into the dehydrator for archiving and the other half came home with me and wound up in a marsala sauce. They were excellent, far better than I remembered them from the last time I tried them.


When any part of this mushroom is nicked, copious watery white latex will ooze out. This doesn't change color after more than ten minutes, but it will stain the flesh a light brown and the gills a darker brown. The odor can be fishy, but it isn't always. While authorities always mention the fishy scent, in my experience that may be a product of some small amount of decay. In any case, it's older specimens that take on the odor. Younger ones are close to odorless and as a rule of thumb mushrooms taste better before they get old. The cap color varies from an orange-brown in younger specimens to the pumpkin orange you see here in mature ones. The stipe is concolorous with the cap or a bit lighter and often fades to white at the apex. The gills are a pale cream-yellow color, often with brown bruises. The whole mushroom is finely pubescent; using a magnifying glass while make that feature more readily apparent. The spores are generally globose; the ones from the specimens I found yesterday were about 8 microns in diameter. Taste-testing the uncooked mushroom resulted in no acrid flavor at all. Cooking it in marsala wine and spooning it over pork chops resulted in a deeply appreciated deliciousness that almost made up for the bits of skin I'm now missing from the back of my head due to the nasty Diptera that think we humans far tastier than any Lactarius could ever hope to be.

From the "There's a reason that they call it a variable Russula" department:


Look at the mushroom in the photos to the left. Take a good, long look, noting coloration and morphology. Now take a look at this Russula, collected two weeks ago. They don't look at all alike, do they? According to current systematics, though, these are the same species, Russula variata. It's hard to believe (in fact, I'm not sure I believe it myself), but aside from the gross morphology, these two very different-looking fungi share all of the same traits. The repeatedly-forking gills, the lack of any color change in FeSO4, the size and shape of the spores and the presence of an amyloid reticulum joining the <0.5 micron-high warts on them... there's little doubt that this is also R. variata.


I wonder, though, whether this is more a matter of convenience than a true phylogenetic hypothesis. Despite the taxonomic peculiarity, I have a hunch that what's called R. variata is actually a few species lumped together. Maybe mycologists are spending too much time thinking about spermatic Inocybes and Amanita with constricted volvae!

Flies eat people. People eat wild mushrooms that probably contain a few fly larvae. Fungi eating other fungi. Fungi eating insects. It's an eat-or-be-eaten world out there. Or more properly, it's eat-and-be-eaten.

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July 24, 2008

Florida's State Tree Struck by Funding Gods' Wrath

An unknown disease is killing sabal palms, Florida's state tree. The organism responsible for spreading the disease is likely an insect, but due to the loss of funding to universities and other research centers the money is not available to tackle the problem.

Sabal palms are a major component of the ecosystem in many parts of Florida. The loss of a significant proportion of the trees is likely to have major repercussions to natural areas. It's a pretty grim picture.

Disease killing Florida's state tree
HERALD STAFF AND WIRE REPORTS


The sabal palm, Florida's state tree, is under attack by a microscopic killer that has scientists stumped.

An unknown but growing number of sabal palms in the Tampa Bay area have died from a mysterious disease that researchers are struggling to identify. Even after scientists pinpoint the disease - and that could take years - they will have to learn what insect spreads it. The disease will be tough to stop.

"It's not simply a matter that we will be able to eradicate," said Monica Elliott, a University of Florida plant pathologist. "That's not very likely..."

"Every single location came back positive and that knocked our socks off," Dessaint said. "Most of what's known is very limited, and that's a big problem right now. There's nothing anyone can do. We have seen this disease on very, very young palms all the way to mature, old palms, along roadways and pastures. it's pretty much everywhere when you start looking for it."

The disease is likely carried by an insect, but scientists don't know which one. There's no way to tell exactly how widespread it is until an aerial survey is done, but that seems unlikely any time soon as university and public dollars are dwindling around the state...

The new disease destroys the sabal palm and its other victims, which include Canary Island date palms and queen palms, from within...

The disease is hitting the state during a tight budget year, and University of Florida research funding has taken a hit. Officials can still turn to federal and private grants, and a proposal to dip into a small emergency fund is being considered, said Jack Battenfield, a spokesman for UF's Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences...
With funding for field research on this problem being tight, it's likely that researchers will need public input to figure out the location and spread of the disease, a necessary first step in coming up with a solution. If you see a palm tree exhibiting symptoms of the disease, you should contact the UF Department of Plant Pathology.

Afflicted trees first lose their lower leaves, which turn a color described as "bright brown." This condition spreads to the spear leaf at the center of the trunk. Then intermediate fronds die, and soon after that the tree is a goner.

The emergence of this disease is a good example of why research funding is important to maintain, even in times when budgets get tight. The loss of funding means an indeterminate delay in addressing the problem as researchers scramble to find the money needed to pay for required resources. The longer it takes, the worse the impact of the disease and the farther it may spread before some way of halting it is discovered.

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